Theme 1: Writing & City Life

This chapter is extremely important for understanding how human civilization moved from simple, scattered groups to complex, structured urban societies. We will focus primarily on Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq).

I. Understanding Early Societies and Major Changes

1. The Beginning of History:

• This section of history deals with early societies, tracing back to the first emergence of humans in Africa millions of years ago.

• Archaeologists study the early history of humans by examining remnants like bones and stone tools.

• They try to reconstruct the lives of early people, focusing on their shelters, diet (hunting and gathering), and methods of expression.

• Key early developments include the use of fire and language.

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2. The Shift from Nomadic Life to Settled Agriculture (c. 10,000 years ago):

• The most far-reaching change was the gradual transition from nomadic (wandering) life to a settled lifestyle.

• Around 10,000 years ago, people began to adopt agriculture, using plants as a source of food. They learned about different kinds of plants and the seasons in which they grew.

• Domestication: Animals like sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, and donkeys were domesticated for food, wool, and work. Around 5,000 years ago, animals like donkeys and oxen were used to pull ploughs and carts.

• Permanent Structures: Settled life became common, and communities started building permanent residences.

• New Tools and Craftsmanship: Early stone tools were smoothed and polished. New tools like mortars and pestles (for grinding grain), stone axes, and hoes (for clearing land) were developed.

• Metal Use: People learned to tap metal ores like copper and tin, which led to the creation of metal objects for jewellery and tools.

II. Mesopotamia: Geography and Environment

1. Defining Mesopotamia:

• Theme 1 focuses on the earliest cities, particularly in Mesopotamia, which is located in present-day Iraq.

• The name Mesopotamia is derived from Greek words: mesos (middle) and potamos (river), meaning “the land between the rivers”.

• These rivers are the Euphrates and the Tigris.

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2. Geographical Diversity of Iraq:

• Iraq has varied environments.

  • North-East: Green, undulating plains with sufficient rainfall to grow crops. Agriculture began here around 7000–6000 BCE.

  • North: A high, grassy stretch called the Steppe, where animal herding (pastoralism) was a better livelihood than agriculture after winter rains.

  • South: This is mostly a desert region.

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3. Fertility of the South:

• The desert in the South supported the first cities and writing because the Euphrates and Tigris rivers carry huge amounts of silt (fine mud) when they rise in the northern mountains.

• When the river water spreads onto the fields, this silt is deposited, making the land extremely fertile.

• The Euphrates river, upon entering the desert, divides into small channels that acted as irrigation canals in the past.

• Southern Mesopotamia was the most agriculturally productive region, despite low rainfall.

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4. Mixed Economy:

• Besides agriculture, Mesopotamian sheep and goats grazed on the steppes and mountain slopes, producing meat, milk, and wool.

• The rivers provided fish, and date palms offered fruit in the summer.

III. Movement of Goods and Trade

1. Resource Scarcity in Mesopotamia:

• Mesopotamia’s greatest weakness was its lack of mineral resources.

• They lacked stone for tools and seals, wood (for carts, boats, and wagons), and metal.

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2. Imports and Exports:

• Exports: Mesopotamians traded their abundant textiles and agricultural produce.

• Imports: They needed to import copper, tin, silver, gold, shell, and various stones from places like Turkey, Iran, and the Gulf.

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3. Transport:

• The cheapest and most efficient way to transport goods over long distances was by river waterway.

• River boats and barges, carrying sacks of grain or other supplies, were easily propelled by the current or the wind.

IV. The Development of Writing (c. 3200 BCE)

1. Writing as Communication:

• Writing is a system that converts spoken sounds (verbal communication) into permanent visible signs.
  

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2. The Need for Writing in City Life:

• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.

• These early records listed items like oxen, fish, and bread loaves that were brought in or distributed from the temples of Uruk.

• Writing became essential because city life involved complex transactions involving many people and a variety of goods that required permanent record-keeping.

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3. Cuneiform Script and Clay Tablets:

• Mesopotamians wrote on clay tablets. A scribe would smooth the wet clay surface.

• Using the sharp end of a reed, they pressed wedge-shaped signs into the soft clay. These signs are called Cuneiform.

• Once dried in the sun, the clay tablet hardened and became an almost indestructible record.

• Language Shift: Sumerian was the earliest known Mesopotamian language. It was gradually replaced by the Akkadian language after 2400 BCE.

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4. Uses of Writing:

• By 2600 BCE, writing was used for much more than just keeping records.

• It was used for making dictionaries, giving legal protection to land transfers, documenting kings’ great deeds, and announcing changes in the laws of the land.

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5. Literacy:

• Very few Mesopotamians could read and write because the hundreds of signs in the script were complex.

• Learning writing was an important intellectual achievement, requiring skill to handle the craft tablet and understand the complex symbols.

V. Urbanisation: Temples and Kings

1. The Role of Temples (c. 5000 BCE):

• The earliest cities in Southern Mesopotamia emerged around 5000 BCE.

• These settlements often began around temples, which were considered the residences of various gods, such as the Moon God of Ur or the Goddess Inanna of Uruk.

• The temple was the centre of community life, receiving offerings like grain, curd, and fish.

• The temple was considered the theoretical owner of agricultural lands, herds, and fisheries. It organized the distribution and processing of goods (like oil pressing and weaving).

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2. The Rise of Kingship:

• The region suffered from continuous warfare over land and water rights.

• Chiefs who were successful in war would distribute the loot and take prisoners as guards or servants.

• Over time, these victorious chiefs (kings) began to offer precious goods to the gods and build magnificent community temples.

• This leadership secured the community, ensuring an efficient way for things to be organized and for trade to flourish.

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3. Uruk: A Major Urban Centre:

• Uruk was one of the earliest Mesopotamian cities and was renowned for its beautiful temples.

• Around 3000 BCE, Uruk grew to a huge size, covering about 250 hectares.

VI. Life in the City (Case Study: Ur)

1. Social Structure:

• A small ruling elite emerged who commanded immense wealth, owning expensive jewellery, gold vessels, and musical instruments.
  

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2. Family Life:

• Mesopotamian society revolved around the nuclear family (a man, his wife, and children).

• The father was the head of the family.

• Marriage required the bride’s parents’ consent, and a gift was given by the groom’s people to the bride.

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3. Town Planning (Ur):

• Ur was one of the earliest cities systematically excavated in the 1930s.

• Narrow, winding streets were common, suggesting that wheeled carts could not enter many parts of the town.

• Absence of Street Drains: Unlike Mohenjo-daro, there were no widespread street drains. Drains and clay pipes were found inside inner courtyards, suggesting that rainwater was channeled into a covered basin (sump).

• Housing Customs: Doors were often oriented away from the street to ensure privacy for families inside the courtyard.

• Superstitions: There were superstitions about house features; for instance, a raised threshold meant prosperity, but a main wooden door opening inwards meant the wife would constantly argue with her husband.

• Burial: The town cemetery housed the graves of royalty and commoners, while some individuals were buried directly under the floors of ordinary houses.

VII. Mari: A Trading Town in a Pastoral Zone

1. Location and Economy of Mari (c. 2000 BCE):

• Mari was the royal capital located on the upper Euphrates.

• It was highly successful in agriculture, but its surrounding territory heavily relied on animal herding (pastoralism).

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2. Interaction between Farmers and Pastoralists:

• The majority of Mari’s land was used by shepherds for grazing sheep and goats.

• Pastoralists were mobile. They traded young animals, cheese, leather, and meat for grain and metal tools with the agricultural communities.

• Sometimes, herdsmen moving their flocks would clash with settled farmers by grazing in their sown fields or blocking irrigation canals.

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3. Mixed Culture:

• Mari was founded by Amorite kings (who came from the western desert).

• The kings of Mari respected the gods of Mesopotamia but also built a temple for Dagan, the god of the steppe. This shows that the city’s civilization was a mix of different cultures.

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4. Trading Hub:

• Mari was strategically placed for trade on the Euphrates river.

• The river trade carried goods like wood, copper, tin, wine, and oil between the southern agricultural plains and the mineral-rich uplands of Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon.

• Officials at Mari would inspect the cargo carried on the boats and levy a tax of one-tenth the value of the goods before allowing them to move downstream.

VIII. The Legacy of Writing and Learning

1. Mesopotamian Scholarship:

• Mesopotamia is globally renowned for its contribution to time reckoning and mathematics.
  

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2. Mathematics and Time:

• Tablets dating to about 1800 BCE show that Mesopotamians had detailed knowledge of things like division tables, square roots, and compound interest.

• They divided the year into 12 months, the month into four weeks, and the day into 24 hours. This method of time division was later adopted by civilisations like the Romans.

• They also meticulously observed and recorded the positions of stars and constellations.

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3. Literature (The Epic of Gilgamesh):

• One of the most powerful literary works is the Epic of Gilgamesh, a story about the proud ruler of Uruk, Gilgamesh, and his failed search for immortality after the death of his friend.
  

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4. The Early Library (Assurbanipal):

• The Assyrian king Assurbanipal (ruled 668–627 BCE) collected a vast library at his capital, Nineveh.

• Scribes gathered histories, epics, omen literature, astronomy texts, and hymns.

• Assurbanipal’s library contained approximately 30,000 tablets on various subjects.

IX. Timeline I: Important Chronological Points

Note: Always remember the chronology (sequence of events) for quick revision.